The beauty and the extravaganza of the mask: Aesthetic experiences, improvisation practices in learning how to solve complex business cases with Commedia dell’Arte
Keywords: commedia dell’arte, mask, aesthetic experience, leadership, business cases
Authors:
Marcella Zoccoli, corresponding author, doctoral candidate at the University of Helsinki, Faculty of Social Sciences, Finland, marcella.zoccoli@helsinki.fi, lecturer & SESS trainer at Jamk University of Applied Sciences, School of Business, Finland, marcella.zoccoli@jamk.fi, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3815-2785
Anne Eskola, D.Sc. (Econ.)/Director, Jamk University of Applied Sciences, School of Business, Finland
anne.eskola@jamk.fi, https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3336-4284
1. Introduction
Learning to effectively lead people is an exceptional challenge. Leading people in today’s complex business environments is a significant responsibility. Leaders must navigate uncertainty, respond swiftly to sudden changes, inspire, maintain stability, and foster transformation. It may seem paradoxical, but this is the new reality we are all facing. Traditional leadership skills are no longer sufficient to ensure survival and evolution through this epochal transition characterized by volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity ― all features typical of the so-called VUCA world (Bennett & Lemoine, 2014) that seems to entangle humans in the passage from a known to an unknown reality.
It is around those four words that this paper will unfold concepts and examples on how to discover different ways of training human skills suitable to leadership processes and dynamics when applied in business activities/cases context. In the business field, cases provide a story, a comprehensive analysis of the plans, costs, risks, benefits, and all those decisions to be made, hopefully through awareness-based choices. Business cases are tools through which the workability and potential of business initiatives are proposed and measured. In this context, business cases are meant to be vibrant representations of real-life situations. They are acted out using the improvisational style of Commedia dell’Arte, with its extravagant characters and physical comedy. This approach is used as a training and problem-solving tool in educational settings to implement leadership activation methods in complex environments.
The art of Commedia dell’Arte can be used as personal training to complex business case solutions to emphasize the creative and humorous approach (Rudlin, 2001) and to transform the case into a more accessible, colorful story with a playful attitude, and to make emerging theatrical aesthetic experiences. Characters, concepts, or even questions in business cases can be used as Commedia dell’Arte actors. Although the case has well-structured and contextualized scenarios, using and representing social types such as Arlecchino, Colombina, Pantalone, and Dottore provides a fresh perspective for understanding several aspects of the contingency, the reality of the case. Their unique and captivating personalities and behaviors highlight valuable insights to resolve gaps or blind spots in leadership. This approach is suitable for finding creative solutions to challenging business cases.
The encounter of Commedia dell’Arte and leadership is a multifaceted engagement, a blend of senses, emotions, and thoughts, providing a new way of using art and its sensory stimuli necessary to create a new interpretation of the beauty of the world inside and around us. Vision, influence, communication, emotional intelligence, integrity, adaptability, and empowerment, just to mention some of the elements needed for an effective resolutive leadership, are dynamics and skills needed by leaders to navigate challenges, foster transformation and guide people and processes within their organizations successfully (Goleman, 2000; Bass & Riggio, 2006).
Elements of Commedia dell’Arte (i.e., improvisation, the characters, the use of the body, the scenario, stock jokes and gags, etc.) can serve as a powerful tool to encourage people to think grounded in “their shoes and new shoes,” and to adapt to changing circumstances. It helps managers understand different personality types within their teams and those of stakeholders. It not only promotes self-awareness and trains to assume new roles and perspectives, but using body language and non-verbal communication, it also facilitates social skills, cohesion, and collaboration in creatively solving problems, let alone increasing moments of hilarity, joy, and humor among people.
The training and learning experiences of international students utilizing improvisation techniques from Commedia dell’Arte took place at Jamk University of Applied Sciences’ (UAS) School of Business in Finland during the project “ProCESS Project” (an Erasmus+ Knowledge Alliances project), titled “Processing Complexity with Emotional, Sensorial, and Spiritual Capacities” (January 2021–March 2024). Dedicated workshops, designed and delivered by SESS Trainer Marcella Zoccoli, were proposed to participants as a new approach to integrating leadership and management studies. This innovative method aims to teach and enhance social skills in higher education, especially within the complex environments and times we face today (Wu & Sekiguchi, 2023). Previous studies have established foundational frameworks for organizational learning and leadership through improvisation (Crossan et al., 1996). Researchers such as Kulhan (2017) and Kanter (2002) have explored the transformative power of improvisation. The use of Commedia dell’Arte as an educational tool is emphasized in Piana’s work (2021), highlighting its effectiveness in teaching voice, theater, and language learning, as well as its ability to bridge boundaries between languages and cultures for better teaching and learning experiences (Di Niro & Viljoen, 2022). This paper provides insights in response to the call to “downplay technical skills and emphasize general-purpose life skills” (Harari, 2018, p. 262a). It stresses the importance of learning “the ability to deal with change, to learn new things, and to maintain mental balance in unfamiliar situations” and, most importantly, to “reinvent yourself again and again” (Harari, 2018, p. 262b).
2. Literature review
2.1 Theory U – theoretical framework as an educational space of action
Learning and developing leadership dynamics and skills through non-traditional methods requires creating educational spaces of action that are receptive and conducive to implementing leadership activation techniques in complex settings. Complex settings are characterized by emergent practice, the alternation of predictability and unpredictability, and the lack of cause-and-effect relationships. This means that decisions cannot be taken based on utilisation or analysis of knowledge, but experimentation and interaction (Kurtz & Snowden, 2003; Snowden & Boone, 2007). To tackle these problems, theory U, which is a graphical expression of a process (see Figure 1), and can be seen as an open space of action where students and educators engage in deep reflection, collaborative learning, and innovative action, and offers an option to transform thinking processes moving away from fact-based information and isolated datasets towards holistic, intuitive and collective approaches, and learning by doing (Szameitat & Nestler, n.d. Scharmer, 2007; Trigger, Trends in Global Governance and Europe’s role, 2019, Presencing institute, n.d.).
Figure 1. Theory U (Wikimedia Commons, n.d.)
The model recognizes the crucial leadership capacities that must be developed, and they are:
- Downloading, which means repeating the old patterns,
- Seeing, which means the act of suspending the habitual judgement,
- Sensing, which means the widening and deepening of perceptions,
- Presencing, which means letting go of the old patterns and assumptions,
- Crystallizing, which means envisioning from the future,
- Prototyping, which means exploring the future,
- Performing, which means the act of embodying the new (Scharmer, 2007; Presencing Institute, 2022; McKinney, 2018).
The U emphasises the importance of three inner instruments that are the open mind (thinking), heart (feeling) and will, and it is based on the capacity of listening to what is emerging from the collective realm through active sensing and dealing with resistance. The first three are used to move down to the left side of U and to get rid of resistance that is described as voices of judgement, cynicism, and fear in the model. The last three are used to move up to the right side of the U to integrate thinking, feeling, and will so that the best future possibilities can be found, and practical applications can arise. In the middle of the U, there is the phase of presencing that is the culmination point of letting go and letting the new future “wanting to emerge” to take place (Scharmer, 2007; Presencing Institute; Trigger, Trends in Global Governance and Europe’s role, 2019).
Due to its novelty and developing stage, there has not been much critical investigation concerning Theory U, except Heller (2019) positing that the theory is not able to capture complexity or match strict academic standards. Be that as it may, Scharmer has been able to embrace non-conventional schools of thought and to go far beyond predominant approaches on leadership theories, and this gives Theory U a chance to be a potential transformational leadership approach (Heller, 2019).
2.2 Improvisation acting practice in leadership to solve complex business cases
To transform potentiality into actuality (Culbreth & Jimenez, 2023), improvisation is one of the valuable skills needed in leadership when creativity, adaptability, and collaboration are required (Vera & Crossan, 2004). It involves spontaneous, unscripted creation, quick thinking, adaptability, and a deep understanding of the environment. The practice of improvisation and the integration of improvisation acting practices like those of Commedia dell’Arte into leadership training allow leaders to gain vital skills to thrive in today’s fast-paced business landscape. Encouraging creativity, improving communication, and cultivating resilience, improvisation empowers leaders to tackle challenges adeptly and motivate their teams. As organizations progress, the capacity to improvise will continue to be an indispensable asset for effective leadership.
Improvisational practices in leadership encourage acceptance and building upon ideas. Leaders learn to embrace others’ contributions, fostering a collaborative environment. Improvisation teaches leaders to be comfortable with ambiguity and to thrive in unpredictable situations by embracing uncertainty. Effective improvisation requires attentive listening, ensuring that leaders are fully engaged and responsive to their people. Improvisation helps spontaneity to emerge, helping leaders to think on their own feet and make quick, yet informed decisions (Weik, 1998). Finally, being fully present in the moment is crucial; applying awareness and mindfulness allows leaders to connect with people and processes and respond authentically.
Commedia dell’Arte used as a tool of leadership transformation helps in developing scenes when aspired leaders learn to “change moods, push, and pull each other emotionally, push and pull each other physically. Balance and counterbalance bodies, react to every new piece of information, react in different ways to old information…,”(Lecoq, 2000), in one word: move. In fact, as pointed out by Buckley (2009) “some specific pattern of enlightenment suggests that commedia was not a drama concerned with great social change, but rather a theatre of the recurrent, the everyday, and the ordinary. Its processes of continual renegotiation and balanced, tumbling imbalance differentiate commedia’s rhythms of change and action from both the resolving moments of bourgeois drama and the disruptive topsy-turvydom of Bakhtinian carnival. These later dramatic structures, a dialectical pair, are wrought from the splitting alienation of modernity’s separation of “high” and “low” modes of representation, and “the body clearly served in commedia as a complex and polyvalent instrument of expression” (Buckley, 2009). By using the body and the principles of improvisation, aspiring leaders enhance creativity and innovation, improve communication skills, become more adaptive and resilient, supportive towards their people, and become more confident and present.
2.3 Commedia dell’Arte
As defined by D’Anna (2019), “Commedia dell’Arte is a complex and heterogeneous theatrical phenomenon that originated in Italy in the mid-16th century. Commedia was born in the streets and the marketplace, where it was easier to attract an audience and make a profit. Indeed, Commedia dell’Arte means comedy performed by professionals, those who are recognized as artists and make a living out of it, to distinguish it from the courtly amateurs. The word Arte (Art in Italian) meant craft.”Itseems to have emerged as a reaction to the aristocratic style of theatre (Guliyev & Özerden, 2023).
The very first description of an Italian theater company that performed in masks dates to 1518, but it is not known whether they wore masks of the Commedia dell’Arte.As written by Grazioli (2018), it was on February 25th, 1545, when a group of eight “companions” met in Padua to sign a contract agreeing to perform together in a “fraternal company” until the following Carnival season, as Lent mandated the suspension of all comic activities. This contract, which is preserved in the State Archives of Padua, marked the birth of modern theatre organization and production. It outlined economic terms, fair distribution of proceeds, tour agreements, and a form of social security fund in case of illness.
It is important to note that at this time, all the actors involved were men, and it was not until around twenty years later, in 1564, that the first documented “profession” of a woman as an actor was recorded in a notarial deed kept in the State Archives of Rome. The emergence of modern theatre and the intrigue surrounding it have been extensively examined in the context of art and history. From the evolution of acting techniques to the use of masks and the creation of character archetypes, the historical and documentary data intertwine with the mythical appeal of these original traits. For example, Arlecchino (the Harlequin mask – see Figure 2) serves as an emblem of this phenomenon, with its origins, evolutions, traditions, and variations spanning across eras, cultures, and disciplines, including theatre, anthropology, visual art, language history, and cinema.
Figure 2. Arlecchino (Wikipedia Creative Commons, ChatGPT 2024)
As cited in Milea’s article (2017) “Commedia dell’ Arte represents an important chapter in the history of theatre, a new theatrical formula, a true school of comedy and of masterful acting, which inspired playwrights such as Lope de Vega, Shakespeare, Molière, or Carlo Goldoni, who popularized the term”. In fact, previously as stated by Fava (2007), the genre has been referred to by various names, such as “Commedia di Zanni” “zannesca” “Improvvisa” “italiana” “mercenaria” and “delle maschere”. Each term highlights distinct aspects of the tradition, such as its improvisational nature, Italian origin, or use of masks. It is a form of theatre where the body actively participates in the narrative, depicting reality and inspiring transformation; this “unscripted art form was based on exaggerated stock characters and scenarios. The comic dialogue and action were adapted to a few basic plots, the scenarios (commonly love intrigues), and to locally relevant, topical issues.” (Haapaniemi & Leinonen, 2023).
Using dramatic tools Commedia dell’ Arte enhances dramatic considerable skills (the Voice/Sounds, the Body Language/Movement, and the Interaction Character/Audience) training dramatic elements remarkable to leadership context where timing is a value as well as focus that the actors needed to be alerted to re-act to other characters offers. Conflict is also an aspect to be considered. There was always some form of conflict in a Commedia dell’ dell’Arte performance, which the characters would need to resolve by the end. Through the main acting techniques of the Commedia dell’ Arte: fast dialogue, physical comedy, adequate rhythm and sound, comedic qualities such as singing, dancing, acrobatics, tumbling, minimalistic set, exaggerated gestures, arm and leg movements, comic timing, specific acting techniques unique to the character, comedic gags (i.e., Arlecchino cherry Lazzo), new opportunities open up to explore case studies with old, new and renewed street theater tools (i.e., characters, masks, movements, voices/language, costumes, music). Finally, by elaborating and applying this creative energy to the seven basic universal emotions: “Anger, Contempt, Disgust, Enjoyment, Fear, Sadness, Surprise” (Ekman, 1957), the practitioners design possibilities to solve the challenges posed by business cases. As Di Niro (2020) pointed out, “for Fava (2010, p. 99), Commedia dell’Arte embraces the scientific way of thinking as well as the attention for the individual, the secular spirit and the open-mindedness towards other languages and cultures”. It is clearly explained from the research of Di Niro (2020) that Fava’s framework of Commedia dell’Arte is built on two main principles. The first is innovation, as he views Commedia dell’Arte as a genre in movement evolving according to foundational principles but with freedom for invention and elaboration. Commedia dell’Arte is constantly adapted to fit various socio-cultural contexts as it moves across time and space. Performances should always reflect the contemporary social and cultural environment in which they are staged, requiring practitioners to understand the specific context to ensure the performance resonates with modern audiences. The second principle is referentiality, which refers to staying true to the genre’s key characteristics. Fava (2007) identifies five critical reference points: four fixed points and one elective. These reference points are fixed types, improvisation, multilingualism, mask, and anachronism. Fava (2004) sees the four fixed points as indispensable, meaning they must be present in any performance that claims to be Commedia dell’Arte (see Table 1). Such characteristics are useful for performers, as Commedia dell’Arte is not based on scripted material but on the actors’ collective ability to create a performance.
Table 1. Commedia dell’Arte – the five critical points in Fava’s Commedia dell’Arte framework (Di Niro, 2020)
Although as pointed out by Fava (2004, p. 19), “modern actor of western culture, who has not passed through a strong experience with masks, once the semblance is put on, tends to delegate. He slips into the mask and waits – or believes – that the mask itself will put into action all its aesthetic dynamic signifiers, simply by virtue of the presence and visibility of the mask itself”. The mask becomes not a hindrance or a shield, but a tool for expressive freedom. “Essentially, the mask opens up the actor to the space around him. It puts him in a state of discovery, of openness, of freedom to receive. It allows him to watch, to hear, to feel, to touch elementary things with a freshness of beginnings” (Lecoq, 1997).
The aesthetic appeal of Commedia dell’Arte lies in its combination of genres. Elaborate costumes and distinctive masks create a striking visual impact. Examples of Commedia dell’Arte masks depicted in Figure 3 are Arlecchino, Colombina, Pantalone, and Dottore.
Figure 3. Commedia dell’Arte masks: Arlecchino, Colombina, Pantalone, and Dottore (Wikipedia/Wikimedia Commons)
The masks and costumes not only portray social types but also create a visually stunning spectacle that profoundly influences the audience, triggering a sense of wonder and emotional engagement – an extravagantly aesthetic experience. The mask covers the eyes but not the mouth. In Commedia dell’Arte, it is the mask that expresses all the emotions and interprets them. It can laugh, cry, shout, smile, feel anger or joy, sing, and dance – communicating dynamic, high-energy performances marked by physical comedy and quick-witted improvisation. This not only captivates and entertains audiences but, more importantly, allows the participant-actor to experience the emotion of shame and overcome it through embracing a new identity.
In Tables 2, 3, 4, and 5, the character masks of Arlecchino, Colombina, Pantalone, and Dottore, their roles, their characteristics and personalities, their evolution over time, and their modern interpretations are described.
Table 2. Characters/masks and their roles. Created by Marcella Zoccoli with ChatGPT (2024).
Table 3. Characters/masks – their characteristics and personality. Created by Marcella Zoccoli with ChatGPT (2024).
Table 4. Characters/masks – their role in Commedia dell’Arte and their evolution and influence. Created by Marcella Zoccoli with ChatGPT (2024).
Table 5. Characters/masks and their modern interpretations. Created by Marcella Zoccoli with ChatGPT (2024).
In this paper, the Pulcinella mask is mentioned because it is the character mask used by the teacher during the workshop practices (see Figure 4). He/she embodies attitudes, values, practices, and functions (that are also candidates for UNESCO Intangible Heritage of Humanity) that serve as a form of guidance towards community awareness. Pulcinella was “an expression of a cosmopolitanism that from the seventeenth century brought the mask around Europe and the Mediterranean, leaving lasting traces of its passage, from which similar figures emerged, integrated into local cultures” (NapoliToday, 2021). Here it is used to move and train people regardless time and space, as stated by Edoardo de Filippo (1973) in an interview: “Pulcinella is one of those figures that arise from popular instinct and not from the brain, the intelligence of the human being, he is not a caricature of a man, but he is a caricature of a human being, and therefore it is universal” (De Filippo & Zeffirelli,1973).
Figure 4. Commedia dell’Arte training image ProCESS Project Fall 2021 and Pulcinella (images: Jamk UAS student and Wikipedia)
2.4 Aesthetic experiences in leadership
As described in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2023), “a paradigmatic aesthetic experience is a perceptual engagement focused on the beauty of an object, such as a work of art or an aspect of nature”. While some philosophers consider this the sole type of aesthetic experience, others recognize various forms. For instance, one might experience aesthetics through witnessing a sublime storm, emotionally engaging with the suffering depicted in a novel, or appreciating the elegance of a mathematical theorem.
The concept of aesthetic experience emerged in the Western tradition in the 18th century, although philosophical exploration of art and beauty dates to the ancient Greeks. There is no unanimous agreement among philosophers that experience is the fundamental concept for aesthetic theory. Some emphasize evaluative aesthetic judgments or the intrinsic aesthetic value of objects. Philosophers use the idea of aesthetic experience for different purposes. Some advocate for deep engagement with the arts, while others define art or distinguish ‘real’ art from other cultural media. Some argue for the importance of education in sensibility for personal or social development. Additionally, aesthetic experience is often viewed as a special form of cognitive contact with the world. Despite varying views, common questions about aesthetic experience include what makes it distinctive, its value, how it involves evaluation, who can have these experiences, and under what conditions. These questions are explored through different perspectives, focusing on the properties of objects and the internal aspects of the experience (Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2023; ChatGPT, 2024).
Defining aesthetic experiences in leadership for the purpose of this paper requires contextualizing them to the context of humans. In an era whereas envisioned by Brown (2019) the world is divided into two worlds “one dominated by automation, algorithms, and attention deprivation; the other in search of human-centred interactions, emotional connection, and experiences designed specifically for us as individuals.“ We approach aesthetics as an “examination of sensory experiences and intuitively sensed meanings that create aesthetic [human] perception” (Burchard, 2014).
Unfortunately, often aesthetic in the business world is seen as just simply referring to the beauty or attractiveness of visual elements such as “product and packaging design, brand image, and corporate identity” (Gahlot & Bathla, 2021). However, as argued by Brown (2019), the concept of aesthetics goes beyond just visual appeal and is valuable if we consider its full meaning. Aesthetic experiences in transformational eco-systemic leadership context, as in natural environments, are not necessarily only visual, but also “multisensory and multidimensional, not limited to any specific frames… or static environmental situations”(Hauru, 2015).
It has been suggested that mainstream leadership approaches might be too narrow in the context of complexity where human experiences do not fit in the logical, rational, explicit and linear nature of managerial practices (Ropo et al., 2002; Hansen et al., 2016), because complex problems are always unique, which means that there are no prior solutions. They also involve many parties, and the problem changes every time it is tried to be solved (Camillus, 2008). In complex situations, rational thinking, feelings, and emotions are relevant sources of knowledge. This is where aesthetics can offer a different point of view to organizational life. The meaning of aesthetics is simply that it is something that we create from our sensory or bodily experiences. Usually, these are five: seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, and touching, and they precede all other forms of knowing and serve as a connector between feelings and thoughts (Ropo et al., 2002; Hansen et al., 2016).
In a complex environment, employees must collaborate, and this creates a need to manage collaboration. Usually, managing in a complex environment is described as a process or model that contains three phases: probe, sense, and respond (Kurtz & Snowden, 2003). Aesthetic leadership can be seen as a response to this. It emphasizes sensory and subjective knowledge, and emotions, and acknowledges that, in organizations, people construct reality (Hansen, Ropo and Sauer, 2016 and leadership brings meaning to relations between people (Duke, 1986).
Aesthetic experiences in leadership are a source of insights and new skills necessary for leaders to practice and apply solutions to process dynamics and lead people in complex, transformative environments. The aesthetic experience is meant as “beauty not [as] a question of shapes and forms [but] as a question of what you exude” (Sadhguru, 2021) and propel to live and experience the leadership culture consciously and not by accidental happenings processed by chance. Aesthetic experiences might have an influence on the transformative leadership field, where awareness, judgment, communication, context, and practice are merging like in a natural environment, also called by Scharmer & Pomeroy (2024) the fourth person: the knowing field.
To better understand the aesthetic experience from the field, the metaphor of urban forests may also be considered. Hauru’s work (2015) illustrates the complexities of coherence, sublimity, and complexity converging into new ways of interpreting and defining beauty. This includes aspects such as attractiveness, beauty, picturesqueness, and scenic beauty, all of which can be related to the art of leadership and the expressiveness emanated by the masks of Commedia dell’Arte.
Through the variety of aesthetic experiences, leadership can exude its beauty as a process and skill. The leader practices ability awareness to perceive and appreciate beauty, harmony, and sensorial attention to details; by becoming more aware of visual, auditory, and tactile elements, a leader develops sensory perception that could execute intuitions, creating emotional resonance leading to emotional balanced responsiveness. Aesthetic awareness (Abbott et al., 1975) nourishes the responsiveness in a leadership context as the ability to understand the situation and express the solution while applying a leadership style suitable to the moment by keeping the balance between the organization’s values and novel solutions to the challenge without judgment. Creativity and innovation play a particularly significant role: enhancing the aesthetic appeal, as pointed out by Fersha et al. (2006), a means to transform our emotional skins through the unconventional yet extravagant use of the mask in leadership makes a difference.
Through this change of skin, communication, as the sister of leadership (Adair, 2007), appears in its aesthetic form. Effective leaders use various elements, like storytelling and metaphors, to communicate their visions and inspire their people. Using narratives that appeal to the senses and emotions and employing symbols and metaphors to convey deeper meanings and connect with people on an emotional level are well-known tools. But still, it is not enough. Creating and maintaining a space to foster leadership experiences creatively and aesthetically is crucial, and sometimes, there is no dedicated space and time for a visually appealing and conducive atmosphere to productivity and well-being. Through art, music, and other sensory elements, we can create spaces beyond physical infrastructural limitations, crafting a vision that is not only strategic but also beautiful and inspirational to people. Through some of the components of Emotional Intelligence, like empathy (Goleman, 2000), we can build deep emotional connections with people and team members, creating new, genuine stories of reality conceived for people’s well-being and organizations’ prosperity. This focus on crafting authentic narratives aligns harmoniously with the attributes of the autoethnography approach used in the methodology described in the following section.
3. Method and data
The overall ProCESS Project employs a mixed methods approach, combining both quantitative and qualitative data collection. The quantitative component involves assessing students’ competency development through an online survey and a structured questionnaire. Meanwhile, the qualitative component focuses on exploring students’ perceptions and experiences of the training activities (Ludviga et al., 2024, p. 1486a). The workshops, as in Jamk UAS case outlined in Table 7, followed with attention the key directions defined by the project’s main trends. These included establishing a solid theoretical foundation that connects the mind and body, providing opportunities for participants to engage in unexpected activities that encourage experimentation with their perceptions and sensations, all closely tied to real-world management scenarios. Additionally, the sessions integrated sensory, emotional, and spiritual experiences. Participants were consistently encouraged to share their insights with respect and goodwill, and they were invited to engage in thoughtful reflection on these experiences, fostering a rich environment for personal and collective growth (Ludviga et al., 2024, p. 1486b). At the end of each workshop, a conclusive conversation with reflection time and the possibility for feedback was offered to all the students.
3.1 Theory U and autoethnographic approach
The attitude and the practice of conversations and reflections, relevant activities in Theory U, offered the possibility of using autoethnography as a qualitative approach.
Autoetnography from the “Greek roots autós = self + ethnos = people + graphia = writing” (Poulos, 2021) as described by Schwandt (2007), is “originally defined as the cultural study of one’s own people, this term now commonly refers to a particular form of writing that seeks to unite ethnographic (looking outward at a world beyond one’s own) and autobiographical (gazing inward for a story of one’s self) intentions. The aim in composing an autoethnographic account is to keep both the subject (knower) and object (that which is being examined) in simultaneous view. It is commonly claimed that the striking stories that frequently comprise autoethnography are intended to illustrate and evoke rather than to state or make a claim, and that the author of such a text aims to invite readers into the text to relive the experience rather than to interpret or analyze what the author is saying.” By intersecting autoethnography with the three main steps of the process of Theory U as designed by Scharmer (2007), the process unfolds through: 1. Observe, Observe, Observe, 2. Retreat & Reflect, 3. Act in an instant. The first step is a key component, as it emphasizes the importance of immersing oneself in the current reality to gain a deep understanding before taking action. It involves setting aside judgment and viewing the situation with fresh eyes. It’s about being open and attentive to your surroundings without any preconceived notions. After observing, the second step invites one to take a step back and consider what has been seen and experienced. This reflection allows for connecting with deeper insights and understanding the underlying patterns and dynamics. This offers the possibility to apply autoethnography as a qualitative research approach to the workshops and to select some of its tools to serve as an effective method to source observations from the field (i.e. journaling, memory work, artifact analysis etc.) and to explore the integration of external data to contextualize personal experiences (Adams et al., 2015). The third and final step involves using the insights gained to make informed decisions and implement changes effectively. As stated by Reed-Danahay (2019), “the notion of autoethnography foregrounds the multiple nature of selfhood and opens up new ways of writing about social life”. In this paper, autoethnographic reflections provide insights into the experiences participants shared during the phases of practice.
3.2 ProCESS Project – research phase
Between January 2021 and March 2024, Jamk UAS in Finland was a partner in the Erasmus+ ProCESS Project titled “Processing Complexity with Emotional, Sensorial and Spiritual capacities”. The project included the participation of nine partners from four European countries and 185 students from four international universities who participated in three training rounds. During these rounds, they received specialized training sessions (SESS workshops) conducted by SESS Trainers (sensorial, emotional, and spiritual skills trainers). At Jamk UAS, the sessions were set and delivered by the first certified SESS Trainer (sensorial, emotional, and spiritual skills trainer) and performed by students participating in the ProCESS Project. During the spring semester of 2023, the same teacher-trainer implemented Commedia dell’Arte as a pedagogical tool in two courses she designed: Co-Creative Organizational Leadership and Emotional Management of International Business Complexity.
The goal was to address complex management cases and improve the participants’ decision-making, problem-solving, sensorial-emotional-spiritual skills, and cultural sensitivity. The project involved analyzing 12 real-life complex management case studies developed in collaboration with partner companies such as Sanofi, De Klausen, Mediatalo Keskisuomalainen, and Latvijas Pasts. According to the Cambridge Dictionary (n.d.), a business case is defined as “an explanation or set of reasons describing how a business decision will improve a business, product, etc., and how it will affect costs and profits and attract investments”. Business cases are powerful educational tools that teach and train leadership in both traditional and innovative ways. They contribute to leadership development in several ways, providing real-world contexts and scenarios that require participants to make decisions based often on incomplete information, encouraging critical team collaboration by applying leadership theories with innovation and creativity to navigate and solve complex business situations successfully.
The pedagogical training approach involves using the principles and techniques of Commedia dell’Arte to discuss complex business cases. This approach allows participants to draw from their own experiences to better understand the cases they are studying. By using masks, participants can take on new perspectives and create new, more engaging narratives. The teacher in this activity focuses on supporting the acting engagement and encouraging improvisation without controlling the content. The goal is to create a joyful and collaborative environment where participants can develop and learn from each other.
The first time forms of improvisational theatre were used in the teacher’s leadership courses was back in 2016 in the course Basic Leadership Skills. It was an amazingly simple yet powerful experience of improv, such as the exercise of saying “I am a tree”. According to Bertinetto (2023) “the way the characters of the Italian Commedia dell’Arte (or commedia all’improvviso) improvise is very different from the improvisation performed in contemporary Improv-theatre”. Over time, various activities have been performed and utilized (i.e., Social Presencing Theater). However, in this paper, we present Commedia dell’Arte used in three dedicated workshops of research with practice during the fall of 2021, 2022, and 2023.
A common denominator for complexity-related problem-solving methods is shared understanding and sensemaking, where people share a common view on issues meaningful for the organization, even though they do not necessarily agree on every aspect, and where the conception of a problem with its solution is emerging little by little (Choo, 2002; Christensen 2009). In theory U, co-creation is a methodological tool to overcome challenges in complex situations. The model suggests that once a group goes through the process, both individual members and the group begin to operate with a heightened level of energy and sense the future to emerge, bringing about new solutions (Presencing Institute, n.d.). Shared understanding leads to the use of collective wisdom in problem-solving to achieve common targets. The empowerment helps in creating innovations and emphasizing both action and experiment, while adopting a proactive orientation helps in adapting to turbulent conditions even though results are uncertain (Camillus, 2008; Christensen, 2009).
During the ProCESS project, the method was developed by guiding working team groups in two directions according to knowledge and wisdom (experience). Different approaches and techniques inspired by artistic, creative, and contemplative disciplines facilitated the students’ work and the profound meaning of it. The training journey inspired by Theory U was framed in the music metaphor of the three different typical moments: the exposition, the development, and the recapitulation (see Table 6). This accompanied the rhythm of the learning and the development process, offering coherent narratives of the workshops aiming to flourish individuals on private and collective public levels. The attitudes coaches and trainers asked participants were towards dedicated, committed, respectful, and responsible behaviour during the overall workshop journey.
A few but clear instructions were given to participants to be followed:
- to be prepared to participate in the workshop in a conducive way with appropriate circumstances and behaviour (eating during activities was not allowed, wearing appropriate dress, etc.),
- during the practices, digital devices were switched off or in silent mode, while taking notes was suggested,
- short break moments were offered during the intense four-hour duration of the work,
- during the workshop, participants were not allowed to shoot video, but taking pictures was possible.
Workshop 1 (Exposition) was designed to introduce the path and the trainers, to know the participants, and to make the students know each other, bringing awareness of the attitude, the guidelines, and ethical rules to the workshop. The purpose was to embark them on the journey with some dedicated activities to boost the awareness of their senses and their human intelligence. The work was conducted on two levels: “the journey itself (the outcome of the 6 workshops for the cases solution, i.e., collective work) and the personal journey (developing students’ attitude and talents through the execution-creations meant to produce and embody their skills as leaders, i.e., individual work)”(Eskola et al., 2022).
Table 6. The design of the six workshops of “Complexity Sonaatti” at Jamk UAS – Workshop 3 – Commedia dell’Arte. Sourced from Eskola et al. (2022).
3.3 Workshop #3 Theater – Research phase: Complexity, what a drama! – Case studies training with Commedia dell’Arte
Workshop number three, part of the six workshops of “Complexity Sonaatti” at Jamk UAS (see Table 7), was always located on Theory U between the principles of “redirecting” and “letting go” with the purpose to opening a space through to sensing the experience from the field and see with new eyes the business case. The theatre techniques of the experiential dynamics of Commedia dell’Arte shaped a new language and communications form useful to explore, through human senses, the articulations and paradoxes of life, and apply it to the dedicated case study. The workshop aimed to create a “safe space” of action (Seppänen & Toivanen, 2023), for the development of self-awareness and social skills by connecting and understanding circumstances and paradoxical situations, reading and listening behind the words of the case, and envisioning solutions.
During each round of the ProCESS project, four groups of student-practitioners were introduced to Commedia dell’Arte, and they became familiar with the masked characters and social types. They were introduced to Pulcinella, a character portrayed by the SESS Trainer. In the activity, participants had fun choosing a mask at random, wearing their own, or selecting one based on affinity. They then connected with the character or situation and freely and imaginatively interpreted it. They engaged in a dialogue between the characters, sharing challenges or problems, letting go of fears or demanding situations, and welcoming innovative ideas and insights for problem-solving.
Table 7. The description of the six workshops of “Complexity Sonaatti” at Jamk UAS. Sourced from Eskola et al. (2022).
The data collection for this paper development is represented by the information emerged from the field (Scharmer 2018) in different forms: informal conversations and feedback, short unpublished videos captured during the practice, along with pictures as an example presented in the image composition in Figure 6, notes, memoires, stories, drawings and sketches. Even without formal analysis, descriptions and narratives from the autoethnography approach offer valuable contributions for academic studies (Wall, 2008). The sociocultural context of personal stories reveals its importance in cultural and social dynamics, making them relevant in the perspective of the discussion of socially constructed phenomena. Consequently, as stated by Ellis et al. (2011), “autoethnography is one of the approaches that acknowledges and accommodates subjectivity, emotionality, and the researcher’s influence on research, rather than hiding from these matters or assuming they don’t exist”. In the next section, some summary paragraphs are provided based on the personal experiences and insights that emerged from the work and the conversations had with the student-participants and the trainers, academic coaches, project manager, and faculty members participating in the training and presentation activities.
4. Autoethnographic reflections from Workshop #3 Theater – Commedia dell’Arte
Workshop #3 aimed to renew creative dimensions, fostering a desire for knowledge, curiosity, and motivation to approach the latest ideas. It also addressed information gaps and solved intellectual challenges by engaging the senses, perceptions, and emotions. Some of the students produced their masks to create more connection with the character and the scenario; some others engaged in more exploration through embodied practices, Hayashi (2021), as body postures, movements, and spatial design; while some others played with different tones of their voice creating vocal improvisation to allow the “mind, body and voice act together and thus expressivity is born” (Pocan, 2023).
As pointed out by Bertinetto (2013, p.5), engaging in improvisation allows us to “obtain experiential information” also about our own personalities. This process activates a learning experience in which we participate as performers and observers. In fact, by attentively watching an improvised artistic performance, we can gain insights into how “our social and embodied intelligence shapes and organizes itself and the world” (Bertinetto 2013, p.17). In doing so, we respond to the unexpected challenges presented by our environment and other interacting individuals. This interaction helps us navigate uncertainty and manage the unpredictable aspects of life, enabling us to adapt our plans to fit the present situation with varying degrees of sensitivity and success.
Figure 5. Workshop 3 – Fall 2021 – Complexity: What a drama! Case studies training with Commedia dell’Arte
4.1 Fall 2021 and the Winter School in January 2022 in Finland
During the fall 2021 round, students and trainers were still wearing face masks due to the pandemic period that preceded the start of the in-person workshops. The potential of the Commedia dell’Arte ― despite some initial wonder, embarrassment, shyness, and impediment was welcome anyhow as a new “device” and body engagement in exploration. Fantasizing, performing a narration without a script, listening and learning a new language, and producing innovative ideas to mature were all part of the process. The silence was practiced between the words, an unexplored energy leading to more clarity on unfamiliar terrain. The courage and pride of owning and signing the realization of the task with new strength resulted in the success of a joyful outcome. During the Winter School in January 2022 at Jamk UAS, an online presentation with training of Commedia dell’Arte technique was livestreamed to all international participants attending from the main auditorium of the campus and performed by SESS Trainer Marcella Zoccoli wearing a Pulcinella mask. The event concluded with a grand finale, a collective Tarantella Napoletana dance (Wikipedia Contributions, n.d.).
4.2 Fall 2022 and the Winter School in January 2023 in Latvia
During the round of fall 2022, the students were given the opportunity to create their own masks, and some of them embraced the idea. They demonstrated a fresh perspective and a childlike approach to collaboration, using simple and innovative creativity. A few students showed a connection to improvisation techniques, using language that resonated with the practice through imagination and the beauty of movements, words, and ideas. They took action to achieve their goals, using Commedia dell’Arte as a tool to enhance their skills and contribute to the leadership journey within the scope of the project. The result was a logical progression and a newfound inspiration to pursue their path with creative clarity and balance.
During the Winter School in January 2023 at RISEBA University of Applied Sciences in Latvia, in the online session presentation on the Latvijas Pasts case, Jamk students included the visual of the masks of Arlecchino, Pantalone, Colombina and Dottore to show and present their content about the target groups of reference of the specific case.
4.3 Fall 2023 and final improvisation at Winter School on the 23rd of January 2024 in Romania
During the round of fall 2023,the students demonstrated mature management of the tool. They benefited from the experiences from previous workshops and their committed attitude. They used the experience of Commedia dell’Arte masks as a solid foundation for creating a leadership playground where new concepts emerging from the reality of the business case could be explored. This involved improvising a story without a script, listening and learning a new language, and producing new insights to develop the initial idea. It also required balancing the human intelligence and talents of the students, letting go of barriers, and being ready to make the creative leap.
Case studies on training with Commedia dell’Arte, as well as Commedia dell’Arte and Leadership, were also presented at the ProCESS Project Multiplier Event during the Winter School on January 23, 2024, at the Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania. The presentation was delivered by Marcella Zoccoli, a Senior Lecturer and SESS Trainer at Jamk University of Applied Sciences, who was masked as Pulcinella. The event also involved the participation of students from the Jamk ProCESS Project “Complexity Sonaatti” Edition Fall 2023, along with students from partner universities who attended the workshop session (see Figure 6).
Figure 6. Workshop 3 – Fall 2021, 2022, and 2023 – Complexity: What a drama! (Source: Marcella Zoccoli archive images)
Workshop #3 Theater – Commedia dell’Arte (see Figure 5) supported students in releasing old habits and unproductive thought patterns. It aimed to create opportunities for individual and collective recognition by acknowledging the potential of their hidden talents, suitable for co-creative interpretations, analysis of the relevant case studies, and shaping innovative narratives for their case solutions.
5. Conclusions
This paper aimed to show a creative responsiveness from theory to practice to the needs of organizations facing complex problems in a VUCA world, offering the possibility to create educational safe spaces of action for students in leadership and management, where to activate non-traditional methods to learn. By teaching and training through new ways to explore self- and social awareness, we support the learning process in creating relations, connecting, and understanding the reality of life and complex business contexts, developing human skills by understanding paradoxes and contingencies, learning to read behind the lines, listen beyond the words and imagine new scenarios for creating solutions.
In this case, utilizing Theory U as a framework both in leadership courses and the ProCESS project helped in encouraging the students to develop their leadership identity and access a state of mind suitable to exhibit leadership on different organizational levels by being aware that a leader’s identity is not a position or title but a socially constructed phenomenon. As Scharmer (2007) posits “we need a new way of seeing, learning, and doing and the primary job of leadership is to help people discover the power of seeing and seeing together; these times call for a new consciousness and a new collective leadership capacity to meet these challenges in a more conscious, intentional, and strategic way.” Theory U methodology supported the alignment of the hearts, minds, and actions for a common goal, and assisted in building the enthusiasm and the momentum for possible desirable futures, opening possibilities while exploring and helping working groups in achieving targets. Although finding common ground can be challenging, especially in complex situations, the process encourages open dialogue to work towards solutions, even if complete agreement is not always achievable.
Presenting and introducing the use of Commedia dell’Arte and figurative masks supported the analysis process of business cases, facilitating the discovery of creative, emotional, and stable abilities. This enabled the development of new problem-solving approaches and effective communication, essential for presenting well-organized proposals. Commedia dell’ Arte improvisational techniques and masks were utilized in the project workshops with students and piloted with teachers (future SESS Trainers) and during time some other leadership courses showed how in all the learning instances the beauty and the extravaganza of the masks opened new creative dimensions through the silence between the words, an explored energy that underlies thought, fostering students’ epistemic curiosity and transformative experimentations. Emphasizing ensemble acting and personal engagement in improvisation practices increases the flow of natural human skills and has moved and created beautiful aesthetic experiences of the art of leadership.
Wearing a mask allows you to express yourself without the conventions and limitations of everyday life. The mask transforms you into an exaggerated archetype, making it possible to explore extremes where anything can happen. Commedia dell’arte is a form of improvisational theater that provides the opportunity to portray complex business scenarios relevant to our time. It helps leaders and managers, referred to as actors in this context, observe these situations from new perspectives. By experiencing these scenarios “live,” they can “free their minds” and activate their human skills to collaboratively develop fresh solutions that are suitable for the decision-making process. In fact, Commedia dell’Arte, much like leadership, is continuously adapting to fit various sociocultural contexts as it evolves over time and across various places. Innovating with creativity and elaboration, reflecting the contemporary social and cultural environment in which it is performed, while ensuring that the dynamics resonate with people and processes of the current times while maintaining integrity in the captivating, beautiful movements of aesthetic experience, leaders and leadership practitioners must understand the specific context in which they operate.
To conclude, in the evolving world of higher education, merging Commedia dell’Arte techniques with Theory U provides a groundbreaking method for learning and development. Recognizing the educational field as a social space of action and practice allows educators to cultivate spaces that encourage creativity and spontaneity, enriching knowledge through aesthetic experiential learning. The study has limitations that open opportunities for future explorations. This would confirm the insights of this case and yield additional findings. Research on the application of improvisation techniques in leadership may encounter potential limitations due to resistance because of its unconventional approach, possible discomfort with spontaneous interactions, and exercises. The effectiveness of this type of training not only largely depends on the facilitator’s commitment, talent, and proficiency, but also on the creation of physical, emotional, and intellectual safe spaces where to apply these kinds of creative tools and connect activities to real-life situations. It is recommended to emphasize essential human skills, promote reflection, engage facilitators with an attitude, and consider socio-cultural contexts. By following these steps, creativity, problem-solving, and teamwork are enhanced, allowing the leadership process and dynamics to support human flourishing.
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